There are few nutrients with a list of health benefits as long as that of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
As with all dietary supplements, this list contains many properties that are not sufficiently supported by scientific research; however, most of them are not in doubt among scientists.
In this article, we will discuss what omega-3 fatty acids are, why they are taken, and what they are truly beneficial for according to scientific studies. You will also learn about the different forms of omega-3, and why plant sources of omega-3 are much less beneficial than those obtained from fish.
What are Omega-3 fatty acids and why are they sometimes called “vitamins”
Omega-3 is a shortened name for essential polyunsaturated fatty acids omega-3 (let the word “fatty” not confuse you), which play a very important role in the functioning of the body.
They ensure the health of the nervous system, brain, eyes, muscles, and bones, are important for immunity, perform anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer actions, and their additional intake carries numerous scientifically proven health benefits 1,2.
The exceptional usefulness, as well as the inclusion of omega-3 in many multivitamin complexes, has secured omega-3 the title of “vitamins” (they are sometimes called “omega-3 vitamins”), although by definition they are not.
The human body cannot synthesize omega-3 on its own, so they must necessarily be obtained from food every day – this is what the term “essential” in their name means.
However, according to statistics, the deficiency of omega-3 is one of the most common deficiencies of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients worldwide 3.
And the problem likely lies not in the fact that we consume them in small amounts, but rather, more probably, in the saturation of our diet with other fatty acids – omega-6, the excess of which reduces the beneficial properties of omega-3.
There are several forms of omega-3 fatty acids. It is fundamentally important to understand that not all forms of omega-3 are equally beneficial for human health.
Omega-3 are extremely important polyunsaturated fatty acids for human health that our body cannot synthesize on its own and therefore must be obtained from food every day
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Forms of Omega-3
There are three forms of omega-3 fatty acids. It is very important to distinguish them, as not all omega-3 are equally beneficial.
In the text of this article and other materials dedicated to omega-3 fatty acids, the form being referred to will almost always be specified when mentioning omega-3.
DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)
DHA is one of the two active forms of omega-3 that is directly responsible for the beneficial properties of omega-3 for human health.
Their main function is that they are a structural component of cell membranes and, under certain conditions influenced by stress factors, can be incorporated into a chain of chemical processes that explain the beneficial properties of omega-3.
DHA is particularly abundant in the nerve cells of the brain and retina 6, and as will be shown below, their sufficient presence in the diet is especially important for the function of these two organs/tissues.
DHA is especially important during pregnancy and breastfeeding for the normal development of the fetus. Their deficiency can lead to damage to the future child’s nervous system. Mother’s milk contains a sufficiently large amount of DHA 7.
Like EPA, this type of omega-3 is found in fatty fish and fish oil; in smaller amounts in eggs, dairy products, and animal meat.
It is evident that vegetarians and vegans are at risk of omega-3 deficiency. An available option for them is to take omega-3 dietary supplements based on certain algae 8.
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EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid)
EPA – the second active form of fatty acids that carries health benefits. Like DHA, it is incorporated into the membranes of the body’s cells and is mainly found in fatty fish and fish oil, as well as in some algae.
One of the most important beneficial properties of omega-3 EPA is the creation of a certain type of signaling molecules that have anti-inflammatory effects 4.
Scientific studies confirm the particular effectiveness of EPA in combating certain mental disorders, especially depression 5.
When ingested, some EPA can be converted into DHA.
ALA (alpha-linolenic acid)
ALA is the most widely represented omega-3 fatty acid in our diet. It is an inactive form of omega-3 that must be converted into the active forms DHA and EPA.
The conversion process has very low efficiency: only a small fraction of ALA is converted into the beneficial forms of omega-3: 5% of ALA is converted into EPA and approximately 0.5% into DHA 9. The majority of ALA fatty acids are simply converted into energy.
ALA is found in large quantities mainly in plant sources of omega-3: flaxseeds and oil, chia seeds, walnuts, and soybeans. See Which products contain the most omega-3.
– What is better as a source of omega-3: flaxseed oil or fish oil?
Considering the above, it is clear that despite the high omega-3 content in flaxseed oil, it is an inactive form with very low effectiveness and health benefits. Omega-3 in fish oil, on the other hand, mainly consists of the active forms DHA and EPA and is therefore significantly more beneficial.
That is why one should never rely solely on flaxseed or olive oil as the only source of omega-3. This is especially important for vegetarians and vegans to keep in mind.
Not all Omega-3s are the same. There are three main forms of omega-3: ALA, EPA, DHA. Omega-3 in the form of ALA has very low effectiveness and health benefits for humans. The beneficial properties of omega-3 belong to the other two active forms of omega-3: EPA and DHA.
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How omega-3s work or What explains their beneficial properties
Omega-3s (as well as omega-6s) are components of cell membranes; they are embedded in them.
But besides fulfilling a structural role, they participate in metabolic reactions such as regulating the activity of certain enzymes and play a role as signaling molecules 10.
For example, there is a specific enzyme (Phospholipase A2) that, under the influence of certain stress factors (inflammation or pain), releases the omega-3 or… omega-6 fatty acids embedded in membranes.
– Why is the ratio between omega-3 and omega-6 important?
Because the mentioned enzyme has non-selective actions, i.e., under its influence, those fatty acids that are present in the membrane are released (either omega-6 or omega-3). Both trigger various chains of reactions in the body. The more omega-3, the stronger their beneficial effect.
Omega-3 are embedded in cell membranes (just like omega-6). During inflammatory processes or pain, they are released from the membranes and participate in chemical reactions. The more omega-3, the stronger their beneficial effect.
From omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), special molecules (resolvins and protectins 11) are further created, which have anti-inflammatory effects in the body. Many diseases are accompanied by inflammatory processes.
It is obvious that if omega-6 are embedded in the membranes, their release does not provide anti-inflammatory effects.
The ideal ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 is considered to be approximately 1:1.
In practice, in the diet of modern Americans, it reaches values of 15-20:1, Europeans 15:1, and Japanese 4:1 12-14.
The shift in balance is a factor increasing the risk of many modern diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, osteoporosis, inflammatory processes, and autoimmune diseases.
A deficiency of omega-3 is one of the most common nutrient deficiencies.
Omega-6 are similar in their action to omega-3, but it is very important for health to maintain a certain ratio between them. Today, the diet of most people contains too much omega-6 and very little omega-3.
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Why take omega-3: beneficial properties for men and women. Scientific research
Omega-3 fatty acids are present in the cell membranes of all cells, but they are most abundant in the brain and retina.
They are not just passive structural components of cell membranes, but under certain conditions can leave them, engaging in chemical reactions that determine their beneficial properties.
Omega-3 are one of the most thoroughly studied food components. Scientific research confirms their benefits for the treatment and prevention of a wide range of diseases.
1 Heart, cardiovascular system, triglycerides, and cholesterol
The benefits of omega-3 for the heart are one of the most frequently cited advantages used in advertising campaigns.
On one hand, omega-3s are beneficial for normalizing triglyceride levels in the blood. Omega-3s are helpful in reducing the concentration of triglycerides (fats) in the blood 15,16.
The degree of reduction is determined by the dosage, and the most significant effect is noted in those whose triglyceride levels significantly exceed the norm.
On the other hand, consuming omega-3s in high doses leads to an increase in both good high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and bad low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. This is important to keep in mind for those who already have high cholesterol levels 17-20.
Moreover, it seems that omega-3 in the form of DHA raises the level of bad cholesterol more, while EPA has little effect on it 21-23.
Research indicates a clear relationship between omega-3 consumption and a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease, lowering blood pressure and heart rate, and preventing the formation of blood clots in blood vessels 24.
According to some data, the risk of cardiovascular diseases significantly decreases when the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 in the diet (and consequently in cell membranes) is equal to 4:1. At this ratio, the risk of mortality is reduced by 70% 25.
Omega-3 fatty acids are beneficial for cardiovascular health: their consumption reduces the risk of most serious diseases. However, omega-3 in the form of DHA may increase the level of bad cholesterol in the blood.
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2 Inflammation and Pain
Omega-3s are very effective in suppressing inflammatory processes that accompany many diseases.
Scientific studies indicate their effectiveness in reducing inflammation and pain in autoimmune diseases, menstruation, joint pain during inflammation, and muscle pain 26-28.
This is explained by their property that when exposed to stress factors, such as inflammation and pain, omega-3s, embedded in cell membranes at the site of damage, are released and participate in the creation of special molecules that have anti-inflammatory effects.
The anti-inflammatory effect is the main property of omega-3s, which explains most of the beneficial properties of these fatty acids, as almost all diseases are accompanied by inflammatory processes.
3 Cancer
Increased consumption of omega-3s is associated with a reduced risk of many types of cancer (prostate, pancreatic, skin).
A diet rich in omega-3 has a protective effect against skin cancer 29,30. In contrast, a predominance of omega-6 in the diet increases the risk of cancer 31.
This is because omega-3, like omega-6, are structural components of cells, including skin cells. Omega-3 provides a protective effect when a lesion occurs, while omega-6 enhances the carcinogenic effect of solar radiation by suppressing immune function 32,33.
Consuming food rich in omega-3 may reduce the risk of colorectal, prostate, and breast cancer 34-37.
Omega-3 fatty acids are beneficial for protection against various forms of cancer; omega-6, on the contrary, enhance carcinogenic effects.
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4 Depression, Irritability, and Aggression
Intake of omega-3 reduces symptoms of depression, irritability, and aggression 38-41.
A large number of scientific studies indicate that increased concentration of omega-3 fatty acids in food (and blood) in the form of EPA has an anti-depressive effect 42.
Interestingly, small doses of omega-3 EPA (1 g per day) are more effective than higher doses (2-4 g per day) 42-44.
This once again confirms the truth that more is not always better.
There is reason to believe that fish oil enhances the effect of popular antidepressants. That is, its combination with antidepressants may yield a stronger effect 45,46.
Omega-3 fatty acids in the form of EPA and a dose of 1 g per day are the most effective for treating depression. Fish oil also enhances the effect of antidepressants.
Aggression is one of the symptoms of omega-3 deficiency in the diet. More specifically, the omega-3 form DHA 47.
Scientific studies confirm that for healthy individuals, additional intake of omega-3 DHA reduces symptoms of aggression 48,49. This is true for both young people and school-aged children 50-52 as well as for the elderly.
The effective dosage of omega-3 DHA for combating aggression: 600 mg – 1 g per day.
Omega-3 in the form of DHA is effective for reducing symptoms of aggression. Effective dosage is 600 – 1000 mg per day.
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5 Memory and Learning Ability
The adequate presence of omega-3 DHA in the diet of elderly people positively affects speech speed, while a deficiency of it in the diet of rats damages the memory mechanism.
In one study involving young healthy individuals who took omega-3 as a supplement (750 mg DHA and 930 mg EPA) for 6 months, researchers noted an improvement in working memory 53.
Data from other studies, also involving young people with low fish consumption in their diet, indicate improvements in memory, reaction time, and attention after taking omega-3 for 6 months 54,55.
Additional intake of omega-3 improves memory, reaction time, and attention
6 Dementia
Individual studies show a correlation between a diet high in omega-3 and a reduced risk of developing dementia and Alzheimer’s disease 56,57.
Scientists discuss the relationship between blood levels of omega-3 in the form of DHA and the development of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: the more fatty fish (omega-3) in the diet, the lower the risk of developing dementia in middle and old age 58-60.
In old age, a higher concentration of omega-3 in the form of EPA in the brain is associated with less atrophy of the corresponding brain regions 61.
However, the intake of omega-3 by patients with already developed Alzheimer’s disease does not seem to help stop cognitive decline 62,63.
The same situation applies to dementia that is not a result of Alzheimer’s disease 64,65.
Increased consumption of fatty fish or omega-3 supplements (in the form of EPA and DHA) reduces the risk of developing dementia, as these fatty acids have a protective function for brain cells
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7 Weight Loss
Increased doses of omega-3 may be beneficial for weight loss, but the effect is very minimal.
Omega-3 fatty acids have a theoretical basis for their benefits in weight loss.
Fish oil (omega-3 in the form of EPA) in muscle cells is associated with a greater ability of the body to use fat for energy rather than glucose. This phenomenon is called “bioenergetic flexibility” or “metabolic switching” 66.
Omega-3 activates certain mechanisms in the body that improve the transport of carnitine into cells, which manages the use of fats for energy (fat burning) and the rate of internal metabolism. This has been shown in studies on laboratory animals 67.
The internal metabolism is the main consumer of calories in the human body. It accounts for about 70% of the calories we consume. The remaining 30% is attributed to sports and physical movements.
This proves the relative ineffectiveness of any type of training for weight loss. Read our detailed material What to do to lose weight or Why a proper diet is more important than sports.
Thus, activating the internal metabolism is one of the most effective mechanisms for weight loss.
However, studies on humans show that the consumption of omega-3 (fish oil) does NOT increase the metabolic rate 68, despite a slight increase in the amount of oxidized (=burned) fats.
Experiments on animals have shown that large doses of omega-3 (not applicable to humans) reduce the rate of obesity on a high-calorie diet 69,70. At lower doses (acceptable for humans), the effect is significantly weaker 71.
Overall, scientific data indicate an inverse relationship between the amount of omega-3 in the diet and the level of obesity or their minimal benefit for weight loss: the more omega-3 fatty acids, the lower the degree of obesity.
This is more likely a consequence of a lifestyle dominated by healthful foods rather than a fat-burning effect of omega-3 fatty acids.
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The uselessness of omega-3 (fish oil) for weight loss is demonstrated in a study of sedentary individuals combined with aerobic training (running) and without, who took 6 g of fish oil. The result was the same as in the group that consumed the same amount of sunflower oil 72.
Although some minor beneficial effects of omega-3 intake and training for weight loss are noted by scientists.
The absence of an effect was also noted in a study of a woman with obesity and diabetes who took 4.2 g of omega-3 (2.9 g DHA and 1.3 g EPA) for 2 years 73.
Some studies suggest that the beneficial effect of omega-3 fatty acids for weight loss may be more or less noticeable only in combination with physical activity 107 and calorie restriction 74.
The intake of fish oil (omega-3) on a calorie-restricted diet by overweight women may increase the effectiveness of weight loss by 24% compared to when another oil (saline) is used instead of fish oil, which may be related to higher ketone levels in the blood 74.
Omega-3 (fish oil) may be beneficial for weight loss in obesity, but it is important to understand that they are not fat burners. The effectiveness of their action may depend on other factors: calorie restriction and physical activity. The effect of omega-3 on weight loss is minimal.
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8 Muscles and Muscle Growth
Scientific facts confirm that omega-3 fatty acids play an important role in the processes of muscle anabolism and catabolism.
The state of muscle mass is the result of two opposing processes: the synthesis of muscle protein (anabolism) and its breakdown (catabolism). If synthesis predominates, muscle mass increases; otherwise, it decreases.
For example, immobilization of an arm or leg due to injury inevitably leads to a decrease in muscle mass, while strength training leads to an increase in muscle mass.
Scientific studies on both young and adult individuals confirm that omega-3 (fish oil) enhances muscle protein synthesis by (~50%) and therefore may be beneficial in bodybuilding for increasing muscle mass 75,108.
The mechanism of action of omega-3 in increasing muscle mass is not fully understood by scientists. A possible explanation is the enhancement of myostatin activity.
An important caveat: in the aforementioned study, scientists artificially created conditions of elevated insulin and amino acid levels in the blood by directly administering them into the bloodstream.
Amino acids are the building blocks for muscle protein synthesis, and insulin is a transport hormone that is anabolic, as it helps amino acids and glucose (energy) enter muscle cells, thus promoting their growth.
In reality, to achieve the same effect, one needs to consume protein (amino acids) and carbohydrates (to stimulate insulin release).
However, other studies show the absence of an effect of omega-3 (fish oil) on increasing muscle mass when taken with protein or in combination with protein and training.
In one of them, 20 healthy young men aged 24 participated. Some of them took fish oil at a dose of 5 g per day or coconut oil for 8 weeks. After 8 weeks, they performed strength training, after which they consumed 30 g of whey protein 76.
Muscle protein synthesis (muscle growth) was enhanced after the intake of whey protein (both with and without training), while the additional intake of fish oil (omega-3) had no effect on it.
Moreover, researchers noted that fish oil, unlike coconut oil, suppresses the actions of anabolic signaling mechanisms (which trigger the muscle growth process) 76.
– Are omega-3s (fish oil) beneficial for preventing muscle catabolism?
Studies on immobilized animals have shown that fish oil (omega-3) reduces the rate of muscle catabolism (breakdown) 77. However, some data suggest that they may also interfere with the recovery process 78.
Individual studies on humans recovering from surgeries and forced to remain immobile also show the benefits of omega-3 (fish oil) for preserving muscle mass from breakdown (catabolism) 79,80.
The benefits of fish oil (omega-3) in bodybuilding for gaining muscle mass are questionable: scientific data indicate that omega-3s may suppress the anabolic mechanism, but they are useful for protecting muscle mass from breakdown (catabolism)
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9 Training and Physical Performance
Scientific studies refute the benefits of omega-3 fatty acids (fish oil) for increasing VO2 max when taken at a dosage of 3000 mg for 6 weeks 81.
High doses of fish oil (omega-3) 2224 mg EPA and 2208 mg DHA taken for 6 weeks in combination with strength training have an anti-inflammatory effect, reducing the number of inflammatory cytokines – molecules that are a sign of ongoing inflammatory processes in the body 82.
During strength training, micro-damage to muscle fibers occurs, to which the body’s response is inflammation – the result of immune cells working to eliminate the site of damage.
This study also showed that omega-3s do not affect immunity, nor the parameters that improve under the influence of training.
There are special immune cells in the body called natural killer cells. As the name suggests, their goal is to destroy unhealthy cells, and they play a very important role in the fight against cancer.
Training has a positive effect on the concentration and longevity of killer cells.
Thus, immune killer cells have increased resistance for 2 hours after exercise, and the intake of 3000 mg of fish oil (omega-3) daily for 6 weeks by healthy men enhances the effects of training and increases the concentration of protective killer cells in the blood 83,84.
Omega-3 fatty acids do not affect performance parameters during sports (oxygen consumption), but they aid recovery, as they have anti-inflammatory effects, speeding up the healing of micro-injuries in muscles.
10 Eyes
The eyes (retina) are the second organ after the brain with a sufficiently high concentration of omega-3 fatty acids in its cells.
In the retina, omega-3 (especially in the form of DHA) has anti-inflammatory effects, participates in the formation of new blood vessels, and performs protective functions 85.
The concentration of omega-3 decreases in the retina in diabetes, and their additional intake reduces the concentration of inflammatory markers, preventing damage to the retinal vessels and contributing to the restoration of vision 86-88.
The benefits of additional omega-3 intake for eye health seem to be related to normalizing the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 in the retina.
Omega-3 performs a protective function for eye health, specifically the retina. This is apparently related to normalizing the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 with additional omega-3 intake.
11 Kidneys
Scientific studies confirm the benefits of omega-3 for kidney health.
When diabetics with impaired kidney function took 4 g of omega-3 per day, they noted an improvement in kidney function 89.
Increased omega-3 content in the diet has a protective effect against the development of kidney diseases, particularly chronic kidney failure 90.
Omega-3 fatty acids are beneficial for kidney health: they perform both a protective function and improve their performance in various diseases.
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12 Pregnancy and Lactation
Regular intake of omega-3 may contribute to women’s health by increasing the reproductive period. This is confirmed by studies on both animals and humans 92.
Interestingly, when it comes to humans, specifically women, the positive effect of omega-3 (a dose of 3360 mg per day; 1860 mg EPA and 1500 mg DHA) is observed only in those whose weight was within the normal range; in women with excess body weight, the effect was not observed 93.
Large doses of omega-3 improve reproductive health indicators in women, but only in women with normal weight; those suffering from obesity do not experience this effect.
During pregnancy, women’s need for omega-3 increases, as omega-3 in the form of EPA and DHA is essential for fetal development. Indirect evidence of this is the decrease in the concentration of these fatty acids in the blood of women during pregnancy 94.
Taking omega-3 (DHA) during pregnancy may contribute to better intellectual development of the future child and vision 109,110, as well as a reduction in infant mortality. Additionally, the baby’s weight increases when the mother takes omega-3, and the duration of pregnancy slightly increases 96.
Omega-3 may be beneficial for alleviating depression during pregnancy, which often accompanies it 95.
During pregnancy, women’s need for omega-3 fatty acids increases. Their intake may also relieve symptoms of depression.
Omega-3 can cross the fetal placental barrier, as the fetus’s body is not yet capable of synthesizing these fatty acids on its own.
As shown in a study on primates, when a pregnant monkey takes omega-3 (DHA) as a supplement, its concentration in the brain cells of the future child increases 10-20 times more effectively than when the mother takes omega-3 in the form of ALA.
Regarding the impact of maternal omega-3 consumption on the intellectual development of the future child, there is no definitive confirmation of this. This is indicated by the results of a meta-analysis of available scientific publications on this topic 97.
Adequate presence of omega-3 in the diet of a newborn (in the form of DHA and EPA) is critically important, especially during the first three months of life.
For this, it is important to use infant formulas containing omega-3, or if the mother is breastfeeding, her diet should include fatty fish or omega-3 supplements, as omega-3 DHA is a component of breast milk and its concentration is directly related to the mother’s diet 98.
Flaxseed oil and other plant sources of omega-3 contain the ALA form of omega-3, which is very ineffective in increasing the concentration of the active and beneficial form of omega-3 DHA in the mother’s milk 99. This is especially important for vegetarian or vegan mothers to keep in mind.
During pregnancy and lactation, it is very important to avoid consuming omega-3 products and supplements that contain mercury. Its excess can disrupt the mental development of the child. See our recommendations regarding the purchase of omega-3 products and supplements.
For the proper mental development of the fetus and newborn, it is very important to have omega-3 (DHA) in the diet of the mother and child, especially in the first three months of life. It is important to understand that the form of omega-3 ALA from flaxseed oil and other plant sources is not suitable for this purpose.
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13 Diabetes and Insulin Sensitivity
As is known, diabetes is accompanied by impaired sensitivity of the body to insulin.
Normally, when blood glucose levels increase, insulin levels should rise proportionally, with the task of controlling glucose levels. In diabetics, this process is impaired and is called loss of insulin sensitivity.
Scientific studies indicate that the consumption of fish oil (omega-3) does NOT improve insulin sensitivity, even in combination with physical exercise 100,101.
This is also confirmed by a large number of meta-analyses of scientific research 102,103.
14 Other Beneficial Properties of Omega-3
The intake of omega-3 fatty acids can reduce the amount of fat in the liver 104,105. Omega-3s may also be effective in preventing asthma in children and young people 106.
But even these are not the only beneficial properties of omega-3. But you must be quite tired of reading boring scientific facts by now, right?
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In Summary: Why Take Omega-3 Fatty Acids?
Omega-3 fatty acids are one of the most well-studied components of food by scientists. Scientific research confirms their health benefits and the necessity of regular inclusion in the diet.
The range of beneficial properties of omega-3 for humans is incredibly wide.
They are beneficial for heart, eye, kidney, and brain health, protect against dementia, are effective in combating depression and aggression; improve memory and accelerate recovery after exercise, and have anti-inflammatory effects.
Omega-3 deficiency is one of the most common micronutrient deficiencies worldwide. Its most common cause is not a lack of omega-3, but an excess of omega-6: the imbalance between them reduces the beneficial properties of omega-3.
If you do not consume seafood at least twice a week, especially fatty fish, it is recommended to take omega-3 supplements to avoid omega-3 deficiency and related health issues.
Plant sources of omega-3 (such as flaxseed oil) mainly contain a very low-efficiency form of fatty acids ALA, so it is not advisable to rely solely on them. One of the best omega-3 supplements is fish oil and shrimp oil. They are rich in the effective forms of omega-3 DHA and EPA.
